Chilean Temperate Forest

CHILE:

The area in which this report is in regards to is Chile, a country located in South America. Chile is a long and narrow strip of land that stretches for 2,088 miles with a width of 265 miles. This stringy country is the longest north-south country in the world. Thus, Chile consists great mineral wealth and a wide range of biodiversity due to the various ecosystems. Particularly interesting, is the richness of forest found in Southern Chile which features chains of volcanoes, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Moreover, Chile is situated within the Ring of Fire causing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Below are two maps of Chile, one representing the various geographical landmarks and the other representing the vegetation..


 


HISTORICAL CONTEXT: 

The Chilean Temperate Forest spans in the Southern Hemisphere from 35°S and 55°S. Due to the geographical location and the fact that it receives high rainfall and low temperatures during winter, the ecosystem is classified as a temperate forest. This ecosystem developed after the recession of the continental glacier that occurred more than 10,000 years ago. Due to the recession, the temperate forest remained geographically isolated from tropical forest formations. Thus, this temperate forest is “important in terms of size and lifespan of the tree species, the level of productivity, the enormous concentration of biomass and corresponding capacity of carbon storage, and a high degree of endemism” (Neira, 18). According to the Global Forest Watch, for the last 3,000 years the Chilean temperate forest remained intact with little to no alterations. It is estimated that the forest covered 18.4 million hectares, allowing for a richness in flora and fauna. Although the indigenous of the temperate forest converted land to “agriculture and pasture land,” they were forced to abandon the area following the Spanish conquest and the forest was able to recover (Neira, 16). Succeeding the Spanish, European settlers arrived and impacted the forests by converting the forest into land for agriculture and pasture land. Furthermore, intentional fires were set that destroyed a vast amount of the forest floors. Despite the fact that the Chilean temperate forest is the second largest in the world, currently only “56 percent of the original forest remains” (Neira, 16). Nonetheless, the temperate forest maintains great evolutionary and ecological value. Displayed below is a geographical map of the intact ancient forest shown in dark green and other forests shown in lite green.

HUMAN IMPACTS:

Chile along with the Pacific coasts of Canada and the United States make up three quarters of the world’s temperate rainforests. These rare forests, covering about 0.2 percent of the Earth’s land area, exceed all other terrestrial ecosystems. Due to the largest concentration of biomass, producing between 500 to 2000 tons of organic matter per hectare, Chile has the highest rate of biodiversity of the world’s temperate forests along with many diverse ecosystems, varied landscape and climate (Langman).  The forests are habitats for many species including wildcats, fox and deer. However, about forty different mammals are endangered, by Chile’s forest and park service. Ninety-five percent of the United States temperate rainforest has been destroyed, while forty percent remain in southern Chile. Three percent of the world’s remaining frontier forests are in the temperate zone, and one-third of the threatened temperate regions are found in Chile (McDermott).

The biggest sources of native forest destruction are overexploitation for wood chips and clear cutting for tree plantations. According to the Central Bank report between 40 to 90 thousand hectares of native forests destroyed each year are converted to exotic species tree plantations. Selective logging disturbances are most prevalent causing severe degradation by altering the forests structure and composition. At this rate native forests would be eliminated in about 40 years if logging continues to increase. The impact of these tree plantations includes the loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitat for many endangered species, as well as soil erosion and water pollution. Another factor that has negatively affected the forest ecosystem is fire. An average of 13,660 hectares of native forests have been destroyed each year by fires, in the last 2 decades. Records indicate that less than one percent of fires were of natural origin; 28 percent were set intentionally, 29 percent were related to transportation accidents, and the remainder resulted from undetermined causes (CONAF, 1998).
         
In addition, more than 35,000 indigenous families are threatened with displacement by growth of tree plantations while thousands have been forced to migrate to cities where they lack employment opportunities and a sense of local culture. Even though timber companies have more than 3 million hectares of deforested land available in southern Chile for planting, Chile’s native forests are an “attractive investment” due to cheap bought land, they can be clear-cut first for wood chips, and they provide fertile soil for conserving tree plantations.

FUTURE PROSPECTS:

In 1931, the Forest Law came into force which focused on conserving and protecting the forest, however, today it is only partially implemented (Neira, 26). Inspite of various legislations, there are many efforts to conserve and maintain native species of the Chilean temperate forest. Yet, the state of conservation is of growing concern because of the level of threatened species, such as the southern belloto and the quele. While 29 per cent of the temperate forest is protected by the National System of Protected Wildlands (SNASPE), there are critical areas at risk of being destroyed or ceasing to exist (Neira, 19). Despite efforts made by the government and organizations to protect the floristic-rich regions of the temperate forest, the areas protected are small and incapable of maintaining populations of endangered species. Moreover, most of the forest land is owned by the private sector. Privately owned forest land is becoming increasingly expensive, making it more difficult for the government to purchase for protection. Thus, the private sector must be encouraged to conserve and maintain the temperate forest.   

    
Temporal changes in (a) aggregation index and (b) adjacency index applied to the major land cover types in Rio Maule-Cobquecura. Land cover types: • = agricultural land, □ = arboreus shrubland,  = exotic-species plantation, ▴ = native forest, and ■ = shrubland.

IMPROVEMENT: 

The conservation of Chilean forests is a topic of growing concern among local, national and international conversations organizations. While 29% of the native forests are protected in the National System of Protected Wild lands (SNASPE), the states protected areas system (CONAF et al., 1995), forest types are poorly represented in most regions. SNASPE fails to include critical areas of native forest that are at risk of disappearing or being depleted. Therefore, only a fraction of national species and ecosystems that need protection are represented in the SNASPE. Chile has a total of 85 ecosystems and vegetative sub regions, of which 19 are not represented in the SNASPE (Armesto et al., 1995). Despite government efforts, particular zones of the country are poorly represented in the SNASPE. This protection does not ensure a sustainable continuation of the ecosystem. Because the majority of the forests are in private hands, the sustainable alternative is a locally controlled industry that will transform the forest into valuable products; instead of wood-chips .If the economic benefits stay in the community it will benefit future generations. What we can do is send letters to “Project WILD” and educate the public about the current issue that is at stake.

Census 2000/2010

The above map is a description of the Number of People in the United States of America. As you can see Alaska and Hawaii are present at the bottom left-hand corner of the map. We can see that there is a density of population on the West and East coast of the continental forty-eight states and Hawaii which is depicted by dark brown. Whereas population is less dense in the middle of the U.S. and Alaska. We are able to use this map to study demographics of the United States and provides valuable information for construction new infrastructure within the U.S.. Overall, using GIS to create this map is fairly easy. The most important part of creating such a map, is the data. The data most be accurate in order to create a map that contains no error.

As you can see this map displays the Difference of Population from 1990 to 2000. Based on the map, we are able to see that the greatest amount of population change occurred in Southern California, tip of Nevada, and Arizona. There are some over areas within the continental forty-right United States that have the greatest amount of population change as well which is depicted in dark green. On the other hand, presented by the dark pink coloration, these areas have experienced a decrease in population. Thus, individuals in these areas have moved. One could study why these areas of experienced a negative population change. On another note, as we can see this map has the same set-up as the other map. This is extremely easy to do. Once the map was set-up according to my test and preferences, I turned on and off data, changed title name and legend. This allowed for my maps to be alike and maintain consistencies throughout my project. 

As the title indicates, the above map is the Percent Change of the Total United States of America Population from 1990 to 2000. Compared to the other maps, we noticed a pattern. The coast and middle of the contiguous forty-eight states are inverse in relation. The coast increased in population, represented by the dark purple and purple coloration. While the middle portions decreased in population, represented by the orange and light orange coloration. This map is important because a specialize could use this as a basis of the economic effects of decreased populations in these regions. Moreover, one could study the environmental effects of increased populations within regions. Overall, this map was similar to the previous others and is represented well. However, if one does not know what represented here, one could change the title and this map could represent anything a person wanted. I see this as a downfall of GIS. The data can be interpreted to what the created wants it to depict. 

The Population Density Map is the last of the census series maps. It appears as though density throughout the U.S. is fairly even. Yet, this map is useful to locate regions that are overpopulated. Pertaining to this map, dark blue coloration represents these overpopulated regions. For example, Los Angeles is an overpopulated area. These areas tend to be small and highly urbanized, which is evident with Los Angeles. On the other hand, this map is useful to located regions with 0.00 to .90 population density, less dense. This is relevant for various reasons. For example, the U.S. government is trying to locate a region to dispose of nuclear waste within the contiguous forty-eight. The government could use this map to locate areas of less dense areas then choose an area based on lack of resources in the area and accessibility. Overall, I see the usefulness for GIS. As long as the correct projection is chosen for the map and the data has little to no error, one could gather very vital information about a location and illustrate that information is a visual format. Moreover, the creator of the map best be able to provide enough information so that others can understand and not misinterpret the data gathered. 

Map Projections

During this week's lab, we explored the different world map projections offered by ArcMap. Map projections are significant in geography because they allow us to view planet Earth on two-dimensional surface. Although map projections are more important and useful than globes, map projections can be misused and distort the globe at large. No flat map can portray both a conformal projection and an equal area projection. Thus, you are left to choose which projection is best for the task at hand.

In this lab we were left to choose two equal area projections, two equidistant, and two conformal; a total of six different projections. Illustrated below are the projections of my choosing. We were also required to measure the distance (in miles) from Washington D.C., U.S.A. to Kabul, Afghanistan. Immediately we can see some of the perils when dealing with map projections; accuracy of distance measurement. Take for example the equal area projections, the Behrmann Equal Area Cylindrical Projection measure the distance of the two locations at 8,763.0899124 miles. While the Bonne Projection measure the distance of the two locations at 6,715.658553 which is short coming of the later. Thus, if we are to compare distances of places, depending of the projection used, we must either measure all locations in the same projection for accuracy or explain that this measurement may not be accurate. However, in business accuracy is priority. Measurement is only one of the perils visible. Scroll down to the Conformal Projections examples. Notice that both projections are conformal meaning that the projection is shape preserving, but the Krovak Projection displays a globe while the Mercator Projection illustrates the globe as a rectangle. Moreover, the Mercator Projection portrays Antarctica as being a massive land mass than the rest of the continents. Unlike a globe there are visible distortions, nonetheless these projections can be suitable for a specific problem.

 The potentials of projections is that they can provide spatial data at a specific point on the Earth. Unlike a globe, we are able to use a projection to enhance a specific point for the spatial properties. For instance, equidistant projections maintains the shortest distance between any two points. This is visible with the two examples illustrated below, Conic and Cylindrical. Although the measurements of the two examples are different, they maintain less difference than the other projections. Thus, this projection could be useful in desktop mapping software for measuring two points. 

All in all map projections are not only useful to ArcGIS, but also to the public. For instance google maps most likely uses a projection for enhancing street views and locations. Also, sailors use map projections to navigate the sea. Though the projections have known distortions, there are different types to choose from that will properly illustrates your information. We must not be pessimistic about map projections and distortions, instead we as geographers in a technological age should be able to decipher between what is important to the map and what can be distorted.

Please enjoy the various map projections chosen.

ArcMap

While executing Lab 4 over the course of two weeks, I was to learn ArcMap using the software ArcGIS 10.1. The lab consisted of five exercises which was explained through the ArcMap tutorial. The basis of the exercises was to create a set of maps for a county that planned to expand its airport. This was executed in order to provide adequate analysis of noise and increase traffic affecting not only schools, but houses in the surrounding area. The tutorial is designed to teach the users to add features to maps, edit geographic data, create a summary graph, and other basic skills. Moreover, the tutorial suggested that each lessons be performed one at a time. Also, each lesson was to take anywhere between 30 and 45 minutes.

With instructions in hand, I began with the most obvious, Exercise 1: Exploring your data. This was the first time I used the program, however, I am an average computer savvy individual. Thus, I found the program to run smoothly. I learned how to display various layers and to display specific layers relevant to the county's stipulations. Since this map is for individuals who are not familiar with the data, I learned to create a legend which is useful in explaining the data presented on the map. Yet, the maps in themselves speak volumes. The end result was a map that displayed the schools affected by the noise generated from the airport expansion. This is extremely important not only for potential noise, but for potential pollution and waste schools will be exposed to. (Achievable through additional layers and data). In a border sense, ArcGis 10.1 allows users to provide firms with various amounts of data that is beneficial for affected areas of a firm's future plan, positive or negative. Moreover, layered maps provide a better analyze of data, then written reports and tables, because individuals can visualize information through a map lens than through words. Thus, the potential for ArcGIS is astronomical because an individual using the program are tailoring maps to a firm's specific needs.

While using ArcGIS 10.1, I found that the program is useful for other purposes, such as locating opportunistic real estate for firms. Answering a question, such as "Where should firm A build?" Being able to answer such a question from the comforts of your desk, not only lowers cost for firms in research, but includes other aspects such as demographics and population. Deciding location for a business is extremely important to firms because of cost. The program is able to layer all the concerns of a firm with respects to location and determine a profitable location. Thus, providing tremendous opportunity for both the firm and the people residing in the surrounding area. Moreover, once a map is created, individuals are able to share analyses.

Although there are various amounts of potential, there are also pitfalls to the programs. During my exercises, I was able to add roads and other geographical objects. Thus, I was able to manipulate spatial data. A user is able to falsify data to reflect "positive" aspects that is desired. Also, data may not be exact and distorted from reality. With respects to location, there is not absolute guarantee that that area will generate opportunity as a firm sees. Another pitfall is that this not an easy program to learn without acquiring some education about the different uses. A regular individual will not be able to use this and the cost of the program is expensive. This program is not designed for individual use, but rather for experts who understand geography both physically and culturally. Nonetheless, featured below is my experience using ArcMap tutorial.